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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Visual system</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the physiological components involved in vision. For the ability to interpret the surrounding environment, see <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Visual sensor" redirects here. For electronic visual sensors, see <a href="Visual_sensor_network" title="Visual sensor network">Visual sensor network</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Visual" redirects here. For the album, see <a href="Tab%C3%BA_Tek#Discography" title="Tabú Tek"><i>Visual</i> (album)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Visual system</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">The visual system includes the eyes, the connecting pathways through to the visual cortex and other parts of the brain (human system shown).</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">The <a href="Eye" title="Eye">eye</a> is the sensory organ of the visual system. The <a href="Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">iris</a>, <a href="Pupil" title="Pupil">pupil</a>, and <a href="Sclera" title="Sclera">sclera</a> are visible</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma7191">7191</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"></div></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The <b>visual system</b> is the physiological basis of <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a> (the ability to <a href="Perception" title="Perception">detect and process</a> <a href="Light" title="Light">light</a>). The system detects, <a href="Phototransduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototransduction">transduces</a> and interprets information concerning <a href="Light" title="Light">light</a> within the <a href="Visible_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible range">visible range</a> to construct an <a href="Imaging" title="Imaging">image</a> and build a <a href="Mental_model" title="Mental model">mental model</a> of the surrounding environment. The visual system is associated with the <a href="Eye" title="Eye">eye</a> and functionally divided into the <a href="Optics" title="Optics">optical</a> system (including <a href="Cornea" title="Cornea">cornea</a> and <a href="Crystalline_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline lens">lens</a>) and the <a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">neural</a> system (including the <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> and <a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a>).

</p><p>The visual system performs a number of complex tasks based on the <i>image forming</i> functionality of the eye, including the formation of monocular images, the neural mechanisms underlying <a href="Stereopsis" title="Stereopsis">stereopsis</a> and assessment of distances to (<a href="Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">depth perception</a>) and between objects, <a href="Motion_perception" title="Motion perception">motion perception</a>, <a href="Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">pattern recognition</a>, accurate <a href="Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">motor coordination</a> under visual guidance, and <a href="Colour_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour vision">colour vision</a>. Together, these facilitate higher order tasks, such as <a href="Object_recognition_(cognitive_science)" title="Object recognition (cognitive science)">object identification</a>. The <a href="Neuropsychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropsychological">neuropsychological</a> side of visual information processing is known as <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a>, an abnormality of which is called <a href="Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">visual impairment</a>, and a complete absence of which is called <a href="Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blindness</a>. The visual system also has several non-image forming visual functions, independent of visual perception, including the <a href="Pupillary_light_reflex" title="Pupillary light reflex">pupillary light reflex</a> and circadian <a href="Entrainment_(chronobiology)" title="Entrainment (chronobiology)">photoentrainment</a>.

</p><p>This article describes the human visual system, which is representative of <a href="Mammalian_vision" title="Mammalian vision">mammalian vision</a>, and to a lesser extent the <a href="Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> visual system.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="System_overview">System overview</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical">Optical</h3></div>

<p>Together, the <a href="Cornea" title="Cornea">cornea</a> and <a href="Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">lens</a> refract light into a small image and shine it on the <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>. The retina <a href="Visual_phototransduction" title="Visual phototransduction">transduces</a> this image into electrical pulses using <a href="Rods_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rods (eye)">rods</a> and <a href="Cones_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cones (eye)">cones</a>. The <a href="Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a> then carries these pulses through the <a href="Optic_canal" title="Optic canal">optic canal</a>. Upon reaching the <a href="Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">optic chiasm</a> the nerve fibers decussate (left becomes right). The fibers then branch and terminate in three places.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neural">Neural</h3></div>

<p>Most of the optic nerve fibers end in the <a href="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> (LGN). Before the LGN forwards the pulses to V1 of the visual cortex (primary) it gauges the range of objects and tags every major object with a velocity tag. These tags predict object movement.

</p><p>The LGN also sends some fibers to V2 and V3.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>V1 performs edge-detection to understand spatial organization (initially, 40 milliseconds in, focusing on even small spatial and color changes. Then, 100 milliseconds in, upon receiving the translated LGN, V2, and V3 info, also begins focusing on global organization). V1 also creates a bottom-up <a href="Saliency_map" title="Saliency map">saliency map</a> to guide attention or <a href="Gaze_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaze shift">gaze shift</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>V2 both forwards (direct and via <a href="Pulvinar_nuclei" title="Pulvinar nuclei">pulvinar</a>) pulses to V1 and receives them. Pulvinar is responsible for <a href="Saccade" title="Saccade">saccade</a> and visual attention. V2 serves much the same function as V1, however, it also handles <a href="Illusory_contours" class="mw-redirect" title="Illusory contours">illusory contours</a>, determining depth by comparing left and right pulses (2D images), and foreground distinguishment. V2 connects to V1 - V5.

</p><p>V3 helps process '<a href="Global_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Global motion">global motion</a>' (direction and speed) of objects. V3 connects to V1 (weak), V2, and the <a href="Inferior_temporal_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior temporal cortex">inferior temporal cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>V4 recognizes simple shapes, and gets input from V1 (strong), V2, V3, LGN, and pulvinar.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> V5's outputs include V4 and its surrounding area, and eye-movement motor cortices (<a href="Frontal_eye_fields" title="Frontal eye fields">frontal eye-field</a> and <a href="Lateral_intraparietal_cortex" title="Lateral intraparietal cortex">lateral intraparietal area</a>).

</p><p>V5's functionality is similar to that of the other V's, however, it integrates local object motion into global motion on a complex level. V6 works in conjunction with V5 on motion analysis. V5 analyzes self-motion, whereas V6 analyzes motion of objects relative to the background. V6's primary input is V1, with V5 additions. V6 houses the <a href="Topographic_map" title="Topographic map">topographical map</a> for vision. V6 outputs to the region directly around it (V6A). V6A has direct connections to arm-moving cortices, including the <a href="Premotor_cortex" title="Premotor cortex">premotor cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Inferior_temporal_gyrus" title="Inferior temporal gyrus">inferior temporal gyrus</a> recognizes complex shapes, objects, and faces or, in conjunction with the <a href="Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, creates new <a href="Memories" class="mw-redirect" title="Memories">memories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Pretectal_area" title="Pretectal area">pretectal area</a> is seven unique <a href="Nucleus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Nucleus (neuroanatomy)">nuclei</a>. Anterior, posterior and medial pretectal nuclei inhibit pain (indirectly), aid in <a href="Rapid_eye_movement_sleep" title="Rapid eye movement sleep">REM</a>, and aid the <a href="Accommodation_reflex" title="Accommodation reflex">accommodation reflex</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Edinger%E2%80%93Westphal_nucleus" title="Edinger–Westphal nucleus">Edinger-Westphal nucleus</a> moderates <a href="Pupil_dilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pupil dilation">pupil dilation</a> and aids (since it provides parasympathetic fibers) in convergence of the eyes and lens adjustment.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nuclei of the optic tract are involved in smooth pursuit eye movement and the accommodation reflex, as well as REM.

</p><p>The <a href="Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a> is the region of the <a href="Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> that halts production of <a href="Melatonin" title="Melatonin">melatonin</a> (indirectly) at first light.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div>

<ul><li>The <a href="Eye#Eye" title="Eye">eye</a>, especially the <a href="#Retina">retina</a></li>

<li>The <a href="#Optic_nerve">optic nerve</a></li>

<li>The <a href="Optic_chiasm#Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">optic chiasma</a></li>

<li>The <a href="#Optic_tract">optic tract</a></li>

<li>The <a href="Lateral_geniculate_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral geniculate body">lateral geniculate body</a></li>

<li>The <a href="Optic_radiation#Optic_radiation" title="Optic radiation">optic radiation</a></li>

<li>The <a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a></li>

<li>The <a href="Visual_association_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual association cortex">visual association cortex</a>.</li></ul>

<p>These are components of the <b>visual pathway</b>, also called the <b>optic pathway</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-MSD_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MSD-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that can be divided into <a href="Anatomical_terms_of_location#Anterior_and_posterior" title="Anatomical terms of location">anterior and posterior visual pathways</a>. The anterior visual pathway refers to structures involved in vision before the <a href="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a>. The posterior visual pathway refers to structures after this point.

</p>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Eye" title="Eye">Eye</a> and <a href="Anterior_segment_of_eyeball" title="Anterior segment of eyeball">Anterior segment of eyeball</a></div>

<p>Light entering the eye is <a href="Refracted" class="mw-redirect" title="Refracted">refracted</a> as it passes through the <a href="Cornea" title="Cornea">cornea</a>. It then passes through the <a href="Pupil" title="Pupil">pupil</a> (controlled by the <a href="Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">iris</a>) and is further refracted by the <a href="Lens_(vision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (vision)">lens</a>. The cornea and lens act together as a compound lens to project an inverted image onto the retina.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Retina">Retina</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Retina" title="Retina">Retina</a></div>

<p>The retina consists of many <a href="Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor cells</a> which contain particular <a href="Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> <a href="Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> called <a href="Opsin" title="Opsin">opsins</a>. In humans, two types of opsins are involved in conscious vision: <a href="Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rod opsins</a> and <a href="Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone opsins</a>. (A third type, <a href="Melanopsin" title="Melanopsin">melanopsin</a> in some <a href="Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">retinal ganglion cells</a> (RGC), part of the <a href="Body_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Body clock">body clock</a> mechanism, is probably not involved in conscious vision, as these RGC do not project to the <a href="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> but to the <a href="Pretectal_area" title="Pretectal area">pretectal olivary nucleus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) An opsin absorbs a <a href="Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> (a particle of light) and transmits a signal to the <a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> through a <a href="Signal_transduction_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal transduction pathway">signal transduction pathway</a>, resulting in hyper-polarization of the photoreceptor.

</p><p>Rods and cones differ in function. Rods are found primarily in the periphery of the retina and are used to see at low levels of light. Each human eye contains 120 million rods. Cones are found primarily in the center (or <a href="Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">fovea</a>) of the retina.<sup id="cite_ref-HyperPhysics_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HyperPhysics-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are three types of cones that differ in the <a href="Wavelengths" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelengths">wavelengths</a> of light they absorb; they are usually called short or blue, middle or green, and long or red. Cones mediate day vision and can distinguish <a href="Color" title="Color">color</a> and other features of the visual world at medium and high light levels. Cones are larger and much less numerous than rods (there are 6-7 million of them in each human eye).<sup id="cite_ref-HyperPhysics_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HyperPhysics-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the retina, the photoreceptors <a href="Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a> directly onto <a href="Bipolar_cell_of_the_retina" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar cell of the retina">bipolar cells</a>, which in turn synapse onto <a href="Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">ganglion cells</a> of the outermost layer, which then conduct <a href="Action_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Action potentials">action potentials</a> to the <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. A significant amount of <a href="Visual_processing" title="Visual processing">visual processing</a> arises from the patterns of communication between <a href="Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> in the retina. About 130 million photo-receptors absorb light, yet roughly 1.2 million <a href="Axons" class="mw-redirect" title="Axons">axons</a> of ganglion cells transmit information from the retina to the brain. The processing in the retina includes the formation of center-surround <a href="Receptive_fields" class="mw-redirect" title="Receptive fields">receptive fields</a> of bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, as well as convergence and divergence from photoreceptor to bipolar cell. In addition, other neurons in the retina, particularly <a href="Horizontal_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal cell">horizontal</a> and <a href="Amacrine_cell" title="Amacrine cell">amacrine cells</a>, transmit information laterally (from a neuron in one layer to an adjacent neuron in the same layer), resulting in more complex receptive fields that can be either indifferent to color and sensitive to <a href="Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> or sensitive to color and indifferent to motion.<sup id="cite_ref-Tov2008_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tov2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Mechanism_of_generating_visual_signals">Mechanism of generating visual signals</h5></div>

<p>The retina adapts to change in light through the use of the rods. In the dark, the <a href="Chromophore" title="Chromophore">chromophore</a> <a href="Retinal" title="Retinal">retinal</a> has a bent shape called cis-retinal (referring to a <i>cis</i> conformation in one of the double bonds). When light interacts with the retinal, it changes conformation to a straight form called trans-retinal and breaks away from the opsin. This is called bleaching because the purified <a href="Rhodopsin" title="Rhodopsin">rhodopsin</a> changes from violet to colorless in the light. At baseline in the dark, the rhodopsin absorbs no light and releases <a href="Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a>, which inhibits the bipolar cell. This inhibits the release of neurotransmitters from the bipolar cells to the ganglion cell. When there is light present, glutamate secretion ceases, thus no longer inhibiting the bipolar cell from releasing neurotransmitters to the ganglion cell and therefore an image can be detected.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The final result of all this processing is five different populations of ganglion cells that send visual (image-forming and non-image-forming) information to the brain:<sup id="cite_ref-Tov2008_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tov2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ol><li>M cells, with large center-surround receptive fields that are sensitive to <a href="Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">depth</a>, indifferent to color, and rapidly adapt to a stimulus;</li>

<li>P cells, with smaller center-surround receptive fields that are sensitive to color and <a href="Shape" title="Shape">shape</a>;</li>

<li>K cells, with very large center-only receptive fields that are sensitive to color and indifferent to shape or depth;</li>

<li><a href="Photosensitive_ganglion_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosensitive ganglion cell">another population that is intrinsically photosensitive</a>; and</li>

<li>a final population that is used for eye movements.<sup id="cite_ref-Tov2008_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tov2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>

<p>A 2006 <a href="University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> study calculated the approximate <a href="Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">bandwidth</a> of human retinas to be about 8,960 <a href="Kilobit" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilobit">kilobits</a> per second, whereas <a href="Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">guinea pig</a> retinas transfer at about 875 kilobits.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 2007 Zaidi and co-researchers on both sides of the Atlantic studying patients without rods and cones, discovered that the novel photoreceptive ganglion cell in humans also has a role in conscious and unconscious visual perception.<sup id="cite_ref-Zaidi,_2007_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zaidi,_2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The peak <a href="Spectral_sensitivity" title="Spectral sensitivity">spectral sensitivity</a> was 481 nm. This shows that there are two pathways for vision in the retina – one based on classic photoreceptors (rods and cones) and the other, newly discovered, based on photo-receptive ganglion cells which act as rudimentary visual brightness detectors.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Visual_cycle" title="Visual cycle">Visual cycle</a></div>

<p>The functioning of a <a href="Camera" title="Camera">camera</a> is often compared with the workings of the eye, mostly since both focus light from external objects in the <a href="Field_of_view" title="Field of view">field of view</a> onto a light-sensitive medium. In the case of the camera, this medium is film or an electronic sensor; in the case of the eye, it is an array of visual receptors. With this simple geometrical similarity, based on the laws of optics, the eye functions as a <a href="Transducer" title="Transducer">transducer</a>, as does a <a href="Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD camera</a>.

</p><p>In the visual system, <b>retinal</b>, technically called <i><a href="Retinene" title="Retinene">retinene</a></i><sub>1</sub> or "retinaldehyde", is a light-sensitive molecule found in the rods and cones of the <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>. Retinal is the fundamental structure involved in the transduction of <a href="Light" title="Light">light</a> into visual signals, i.e. nerve impulses in the ocular system of the <a href="Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. In the presence of light, the retinal molecule changes configuration and as a result, a <a href="Nerve_impulse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve impulse">nerve impulse</a> is generated.<sup id="cite_ref-Tov2008_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tov2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optic_nerve">Optic nerve</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a></div>

<p>The information about the image via the eye is transmitted to the brain along the <a href="Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a>. Different populations of ganglion cells in the retina send information to the brain through the optic nerve. About 90% of the <a href="Axons" class="mw-redirect" title="Axons">axons</a> in the optic nerve go to the <a href="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> in the <a href="Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>. These axons originate from the M, P, and K ganglion cells in the retina, see above. This <a href="Parallel_processing_(psychology)" title="Parallel processing (psychology)">parallel processing</a> is important for reconstructing the visual world; each type of information will go through a different route to <a href="Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>. Another population sends information to the <a href="Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">superior colliculus</a> in the <a href="Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>, which assists in controlling eye movements (<a href="Saccades" class="mw-redirect" title="Saccades">saccades</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-nolte_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nolte-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as other motor responses.

</p><p>A final population of <a href="Photosensitive_ganglion_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosensitive ganglion cell">photosensitive ganglion cells</a>, containing <a href="Melanopsin" title="Melanopsin">melanopsin</a> for <a href="Photosensitivity" title="Photosensitivity">photosensitivity</a>, sends information via the <a href="Retinohypothalamic_tract" title="Retinohypothalamic tract">retinohypothalamic tract</a> to the <a href="Pretectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pretectum">pretectum</a> (<a href="Pupillary_reflex" title="Pupillary reflex">pupillary reflex</a>), to several structures involved in the control of <a href="Circadian_rhythms" class="mw-redirect" title="Circadian rhythms">circadian rhythms</a> and <a href="Sleep" title="Sleep">sleep</a> such as the <a href="Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a> (the biological clock), and to the <a href="Ventrolateral_preoptic_nucleus" title="Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus">ventrolateral preoptic nucleus</a> (a region involved in <a href="Sleep_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleep regulation">sleep regulation</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recently discovered role for photoreceptive ganglion cells is that they mediate conscious and unconscious vision – acting as rudimentary visual brightness detectors as shown in rodless coneless eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-Zaidi,_2007_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zaidi,_2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optic_chiasm">Optic chiasm</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">Optic chiasm</a></div>

<p>The optic nerves from both eyes meet and cross at the optic chiasm,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the base of the <a href="Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> of the brain. At this point, the information coming from both eyes is combined and then splits according to the <a href="Visual_field" title="Visual field">visual field</a>. The corresponding halves of the field of view (right and left) are sent to the left and right <a href="Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">halves of the brain</a>, respectively, to be processed. That is, the right side of <a href="Primary_visual_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary visual cortex">primary visual cortex</a> deals with the left half of the <i>field of view</i> from both eyes, and similarly for the left brain.<sup id="cite_ref-nolte_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nolte-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small region in the center of the field of view is processed redundantly by both halves of the brain.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optic_tract">Optic tract</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Optic_tract" title="Optic tract">Optic tract</a></div>

<p>Information from the right <i>visual field</i> (now on the left side of the brain) travels in the left optic tract. Information from the left <i>visual field</i> travels in the right optic tract. Each optic tract terminates in the <a href="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> (LGN) in the thalamus.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus">Lateral geniculate nucleus</h3></div>

<dl><dd><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">Lateral geniculate nucleus</a></div></dd></dl>

<p>The <b>lateral geniculate nucleus</b> (LGN) is a sensory relay nucleus in the thalamus of the brain. The LGN consists of six layers in <a href="Human" title="Human">humans</a> and other <a href="Primate" title="Primate">primates</a> starting from <a href="Catarrhini" title="Catarrhini">catarrhines</a>, including <a href="Cercopithecidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cercopithecidae">cercopithecidae</a> and <a href="Ape" title="Ape">apes</a>. Layers 1, 4, and 6 correspond to information from the contralateral (crossed) fibers of the nasal retina (temporal visual field); layers 2, 3, and 5 correspond to <a href="Information" title="Information">information</a> from the ipsilateral (uncrossed) fibers of the temporal retina (nasal visual field).

</p><p>Layer one contains M cells, which correspond to the M (<a href="Magnocellular_cell" title="Magnocellular cell">magnocellular</a>) cells of the optic nerve of the opposite eye and are concerned with depth or motion. Layers four and six of the LGN also connect to the opposite eye, but to the P cells (color and edges) of the optic nerve. By contrast, layers two, three and five of the LGN connect to the M cells and P (<a href="Parvocellular_cell" title="Parvocellular cell">parvocellular</a>) cells of the optic nerve for the same side of the brain as its respective LGN.

</p><p>Spread out, the six layers of the LGN are the area of a <a href="Credit_card" title="Credit card">credit card</a> and about three times its thickness. The LGN is rolled up into two <a href="Ellipsoid" title="Ellipsoid">ellipsoids</a> about the size and shape of two small birds' eggs. In between the six layers are smaller cells that receive information from the K cells (color) in the retina. The neurons of the LGN then relay the visual image to the <a href="Primary_visual_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary visual cortex">primary visual cortex</a> (V1) which is located at the back of the brain (<a href="Posterior_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior (anatomy)">posterior end</a>) in the <a href="Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobe</a> in and close to the <a href="Calcarine_sulcus" title="Calcarine sulcus">calcarine sulcus</a>. The LGN is not just a simple relay station, but it is also a center for processing; it receives reciprocal input from the <a href="Cortical_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical layer">cortical</a> and subcortical layers and <a href="Reciprocal_innervation" title="Reciprocal innervation">reciprocal innervation</a> from the visual cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-Tov2008_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tov2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optic_radiation">Optic radiation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Optic_radiation" title="Optic radiation">Optic radiation</a></div>

<p>The <b>optic radiations</b>, one on each side of the brain, carry information from the thalamic <a href="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> to layer 4 of the <a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a>. The P layer neurons of the LGN relay to V1 layer 4C β. The M layer neurons relay to V1 layer 4C α. The K layer neurons in the LGN relay to large neurons called blobs in layers 2 and 3 of V1.<sup id="cite_ref-Tov2008_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tov2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>There is a direct correspondence from an angular position in the <a href="Visual_field" title="Visual field">visual field</a> of the eye, all the way through the optic tract to a nerve position in V1 up to V4, i.e. the primary visual areas. After that, the visual pathway is roughly separated into a <a href="Two-streams_hypothesis" title="Two-streams hypothesis">ventral and dorsal pathway</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_cortex">Visual cortex</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a></div>

<p>The visual cortex is responsible for processing the visual image. It lies at the rear of the brain (highlighted in the image), above the <a href="Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>. The region that receives information directly from the LGN is called the <a href="Visual_cortex#Primary_visual_cortex_(V1)" title="Visual cortex">primary visual cortex</a> (also called V1 and striate cortex). It creates a bottom-up saliency map of the visual field to guide attention or eye gaze to salient visual locations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence selection of visual input information by attention starts at V1<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along the visual pathway.

</p><p>Visual information then flows through a cortical hierarchy. These areas include V2, V3, V4 and area V5/MT. (The exact connectivity depends on the species of the animal.) These secondary visual areas (collectively termed the extrastriate visual cortex) process a wide variety of visual primitives. Neurons in V1 and V2 respond selectively to bars of specific orientations, or combinations of bars. These are believed to support edge and corner detection. Similarly, basic information about color and motion is processed here.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Heider, et al. (2002) found that neurons involving V1, V2, and V3 can detect stereoscopic <a href="Illusory_contours" class="mw-redirect" title="Illusory contours">illusory contours</a>; they found that stereoscopic stimuli subtending up to 8° can activate these neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_association_cortex">Visual association cortex</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Two-streams_hypothesis" title="Two-streams hypothesis">Two-streams hypothesis</a></div>

<p>As visual information passes forward through the visual hierarchy, the complexity of the neural representations increases. Whereas a V1 neuron may respond selectively to a line segment of a particular orientation in a particular <a href="Retinotopy" title="Retinotopy">retinotopic</a> location, neurons in the lateral occipital complex respond selectively to a complete object (e.g., a figure drawing), and neurons in the visual association cortex may respond selectively to human faces, or to a particular object.

</p><p>Along with this increasing complexity of neural representation may come a level of specialization of processing into two distinct pathways: the <a href="Dorsal_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal stream">dorsal stream</a> and the <a href="Ventral_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral stream">ventral stream</a> (the <a href="Two_Streams_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Streams hypothesis">Two Streams hypothesis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-UngerleiderMishkin_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UngerleiderMishkin-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> first proposed by Ungerleider and Mishkin in 1982). The dorsal stream, commonly referred to as the "where" stream, is involved in spatial attention (covert and overt), and communicates with regions that control eye movements and hand movements. More recently, this area has been called the "how" stream to emphasize its role in guiding behaviors to spatial locations. The ventral stream, commonly referred to as the "what" stream, is involved in the recognition, identification and categorization of visual stimuli.

</p>

<p>However, there is still much debate about the degree of specialization within these two pathways, since they are in fact heavily interconnected.<sup id="cite_ref-Farivar_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farivar-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Horace_Barlow" title="Horace Barlow">Horace Barlow</a> proposed the <i><a href="Efficient_coding_hypothesis" title="Efficient coding hypothesis">efficient coding hypothesis</a></i> in 1961 as a theoretical model of <a href="Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">sensory coding</a> in the <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Limitations in the applicability of this theory in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Area_V1">primary visual cortex (V1)</a> motivated the <a href="V1_Saliency_Hypothesis" title="V1 Saliency Hypothesis">V1 Saliency Hypothesis</a> that V1 creates a bottom-up saliency map to guide attention exogenously.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With attentional selection as a center stage, vision is seen as composed of encoding, selection, and decoding stages.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Default_mode_network" title="Default mode network">default mode network</a> is a network of brain regions that are active when an individual is awake and at rest. The visual system's default mode can be monitored during <a href="Resting_state_fMRI" title="Resting state fMRI">resting state fMRI</a>:

Fox, et al. (2005) found that "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9673.full">the human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks"</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the visual system switches from resting state to attention.

</p><p>In the <a href="Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a>, the <a href="Lateral_intraparietal_cortex" title="Lateral intraparietal cortex">lateral</a> and ventral intraparietal cortex are involved in visual attention and saccadic eye movements. These regions are in the <a href="Intraparietal_sulcus" title="Intraparietal sulcus">intraparietal sulcus</a> (marked in red in the adjacent image).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infancy">Infancy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Infant_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Infant vision">Infant vision</a></div>

<p>Newborn infants have limited <a href="Color_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Color perception">color perception</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lane2012_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lane2012-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study found that 74% of newborns can distinguish red, 36% green, 25% yellow, and 14% blue. After one month, performance "improved somewhat."<sup id="cite_ref-AdamsCourage1994_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AdamsCourage1994-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infant's eyes do not have the ability to <a href="Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">accommodate</a>. Pediatricians are able to perform non-verbal testing to assess <a href="Visual_acuity" title="Visual acuity">visual acuity</a> of a newborn, detect <a href="Nearsightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Nearsightedness">nearsightedness</a> and <a href="Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">astigmatism</a>, and evaluate the eye teaming and alignment. Visual acuity improves from about 20/400 at birth to approximately 20/25 at 6 months of age. This happens because the nerve cells in the <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> and brain that control vision are not fully developed.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood_and_adolescence">Childhood and adolescence</h3></div>

<p><a href="Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">Depth perception</a>, focus, tracking and other aspects of vision continue to develop throughout early and middle childhood. From recent studies in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> there is some evidence that the amount of time school aged children spend outdoors, in natural light, may have some impact on whether they develop <a href="Myopia" title="Myopia">myopia</a>. The condition tends to get somewhat worse through childhood and adolescence, but stabilizes in adulthood. More prominent myopia (nearsightedness) and astigmatism are thought to be inherited. Children with this condition may need to wear glasses.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adulthood">Adulthood</h3></div>

<p>Vision is often one of the first senses affected by aging. A number of changes occur with aging:

</p>

<ul><li>Over time, the <a href="Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">lens</a> becomes yellowed and may eventually become brown, a condition known as brunescence or <a href="Brunescent_cataract" class="mw-redirect" title="Brunescent cataract">brunescent</a> <a href="Cataract" title="Cataract">cataract</a>. Although many factors contribute to yellowing, lifetime exposure to <a href="Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a> and <a href="Ageing" title="Ageing">aging</a> are two main causes.</li>

<li>The lens becomes less flexible, diminishing the ability to accommodate (<a href="Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">presbyopia</a>).</li>

<li>While a healthy adult pupil typically has a size range of 2–8 mm, with age the range gets smaller, trending towards a moderately small diameter.</li>

<li>On average <a href="Tears" title="Tears">tear production</a> declines with age. However, there are a number of age-related conditions that can cause excessive tearing.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_functions">Other functions</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balance">Balance</h3></div>

<p>Along with <a href="Proprioception" title="Proprioception">proprioception</a> and <a href="Vestibular_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibular function">vestibular function</a>, the visual system plays an important role in the ability of an individual to control balance and maintain an upright posture. When these three conditions are isolated and balance is tested, it has been found that vision is the most significant contributor to balance, playing a bigger role than either of the two other intrinsic mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The clarity with which an individual can see his environment, as well as the size of the visual field, the susceptibility of the individual to light and glare, and poor depth perception play important roles in providing a feedback loop to the brain on the body's movement through the environment. Anything that affects any of these variables can have a negative effect on balance and maintaining posture.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effect has been seen in research involving elderly subjects when compared to young controls,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">glaucoma</a> patients compared to age matched controls,<sup id="cite_ref-Shabana,_2005_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shabana,_2005-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Cataract" title="Cataract">cataract</a> patients pre and post surgery,<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz,_2005_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz,_2005-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even something as simple as wearing safety goggles.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Monocular_vision" title="Monocular vision">Monocular vision</a> (one eyed vision) has also been shown to negatively impact balance, which was seen in the previously referenced cataract and glaucoma studies,<sup id="cite_ref-Shabana,_2005_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shabana,_2005-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz,_2005_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz,_2005-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as in healthy children and adults.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>According to Pollock et al. (2010) <a href="Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> is the main cause of specific visual impairment, most frequently visual field loss (<a href="Homonymous_hemianopsia" title="Homonymous hemianopsia">homonymous hemianopia</a>, a visual field defect). Nevertheless, evidence for the efficacy of cost-effective interventions aimed at these visual field defects is still inconsistent.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2></div>

<p>Proper function of the visual system is required for sensing, processing, and understanding the surrounding environment. Difficulty in sensing, processing and understanding light input has the potential to adversely impact an individual's ability to communicate, learn and effectively complete routine tasks on a daily basis.

</p><p>In children, early diagnosis and treatment of impaired visual system function is an important factor in ensuring that key social, academic and speech/language developmental milestones are met.

</p><p><a href="Cataract" title="Cataract">Cataract</a> is clouding of the lens, which in turn affects vision. Although it may be accompanied by yellowing, clouding and yellowing can occur separately. This is typically a result of ageing, disease, or drug use.

</p><p><a href="Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">Presbyopia</a> is a visual condition that causes <a href="Far-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-sightedness">farsightedness</a>. The eye's lens becomes too inflexible to <a href="Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">accommodate</a> to normal reading distance, focus tending to remain fixed at long distance.

</p><p><a href="Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</a> is a type of blindness that begins at the edge of the visual field and progresses inward. It may result in <a href="Tunnel_vision" title="Tunnel vision">tunnel vision</a>. This typically involves the outer layers of the optic nerve, sometimes as a result of buildup of fluid and excessive pressure in the eye.<sup id="cite_ref-Publications_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Publications-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a> is a type of blindness that produces a small <a href="Blind_spot_(vision)" title="Blind spot (vision)">blind spot</a> in the visual field typically caused by injury in the primary visual cortex.

</p><p><a href="Homonymous_hemianopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Homonymous hemianopia">Homonymous hemianopia</a> is a type of blindness that destroys one entire side of the visual field typically caused by injury in the primary visual cortex.

</p><p><a href="Quadrantanopia" title="Quadrantanopia">Quadrantanopia</a> is a type of blindness that destroys only a part of the visual field typically caused by partial injury in the primary visual cortex. This is very similar to homonymous hemianopia, but to a lesser degree.

</p><p><a href="Prosopagnosia" title="Prosopagnosia">Prosopagnosia</a>, or face blindness, is a brain disorder that produces an inability to recognize faces. This disorder often arises after damage to the <a href="Fusiform_face_area" title="Fusiform face area">fusiform face area</a>.

</p><p><a href="Visual_agnosia" title="Visual agnosia">Visual agnosia</a>, or visual-form agnosia, is a brain disorder that produces an inability to recognize objects. This disorder often arises after damage to the <a href="Ventral_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral stream">ventral stream</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Eye" title="Eye">Eye</a>, <a href="Vision_in_birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision in birds">Vision in birds</a>, <a href="Parietal_eye" title="Parietal eye">Parietal eye</a>, <a href="Vision_in_fish" title="Vision in fish">Vision in fish</a>, <a href="Arthropod_visual_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropod visual system">Arthropod visual system</a>, and <a href="Cephalopod_eye" title="Cephalopod eye">Cephalopod eye</a></div>

<p>Different <a href="Species" title="Species">species</a> are able to see different parts of the <a href="Light_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Light spectrum">light spectrum</a>; for example, <a href="Bee" title="Bee">bees</a> can see into the <a href="Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="Pit_viper" title="Pit viper">pit vipers</a> can accurately target prey with their <a href="Pit_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit organ">pit organs</a>, which are sensitive to infrared radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Mantis_shrimp" title="Mantis shrimp">mantis shrimp</a> possesses arguably the most complex visual system of any species. The eye of the mantis shrimp holds 16 color receptive cones, whereas humans only have three. The variety of cones enables them to perceive an enhanced array of colors as a mechanism for mate selection, avoidance of predators, and detection of prey.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Swordfish also possess an impressive visual system. The eye of a <a href="Swordfish" title="Swordfish">swordfish</a> can generate <a href="Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> to better cope with detecting their <a href="Prey" class="mw-redirect" title="Prey">prey</a> at depths of 2000 feet.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain <a href="One-celled" class="mw-redirect" title="One-celled">one-celled</a> <a href="Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, the <a href="Warnowiid" class="mw-redirect" title="Warnowiid">warnowiid</a> <a href="Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a> have eye-like <a href="Ocelloid" title="Ocelloid">ocelloids</a>, with analogous structures for the lens and retina of the multi-cellular eye.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The armored shell of the <a href="Chiton" title="Chiton">chiton</a> <i><a href="Acanthopleura_granulata" title="Acanthopleura granulata">Acanthopleura granulata</a></i> is also covered with hundreds of <a href="Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> crystalline eyes, named <a href="Simple_eye_in_invertebrates" title="Simple eye in invertebrates">ocelli</a>, which can form <a href="Image" title="Image">images</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many <a href="Fan_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Fan worm">fan worms</a>, such as <i><a href="Acromegalomma_interruptum" title="Acromegalomma interruptum">Acromegalomma interruptum</a></i> which live in tubes on the sea floor of the <a href="Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>, have evolved compound eyes on their tentacles, which they use to detect encroaching movement. If movement is detected, the fan worms will rapidly withdraw their tentacles. Bok, et al., have discovered opsins and <a href="G_protein" title="G protein">G proteins</a> in the fan worm's eyes, which were previously only seen in simple <a href="Cilium" title="Cilium">ciliary</a> photoreceptors in the brains of some <a href="Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, as opposed to the <a href="Rhabdomeric" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhabdomeric">rhabdomeric</a> receptors in the eyes of most invertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-Bok2017_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bok2017-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Only <a href="Higher_primate" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher primate">higher primate</a> <a href="Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> (African) <a href="Monkey" title="Monkey">monkeys</a> and apes (<a href="Macaque" title="Macaque">macaques</a>, <a href="Ape" title="Ape">apes</a>, <a href="Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a>) have the same kind of three-cone <a href="Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor</a> color vision humans have, while lower primate <a href="New_World" title="New World">New World</a> (South American) monkeys (<a href="Spider_monkey" title="Spider monkey">spider monkeys</a>, <a href="Squirrel_monkey" title="Squirrel monkey">squirrel monkeys</a>, <a href="Capuchin_monkey" title="Capuchin monkey">cebus monkeys</a>) have a two-cone photoreceptor kind of color vision.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Biologists have determined that humans have extremely good vision compared to the overwhelming majority of animals, particularly in daylight, surpassed only by a few large species of <a href="Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">predatory birds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other animals such as <a href="Dog" title="Dog">dogs</a> are thought to rely more on senses other than vision, which in turn may be better developed than in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>In the second half of the 19th century, many motifs of the nervous system were identified such as the neuron doctrine and brain localization, which related to the <a href="Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a> being the basic unit of the nervous system and functional localisation in the brain, respectively. These would become tenets of the fledgling <a href="Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> and would support further understanding of the visual system.

</p><p>The notion that the <a href="Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> is divided into functionally distinct cortices now known to be responsible for capacities such as <a href="Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">touch</a> (<a href="Somatosensory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory cortex">somatosensory cortex</a>), <a href="Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">movement</a> (<a href="Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a>), and vision (<a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a>), was first proposed by <a href="Franz_Joseph_Gall" title="Franz Joseph Gall">Franz Joseph Gall</a> in 1810.<sup id="cite_ref-Gross,_1994_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross,_1994-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence for functionally distinct areas of the brain (and, specifically, of the cerebral cortex) mounted throughout the 19th century with discoveries by <a href="Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a> of the <a href="Language_center" title="Language center">language center</a> (1861), and <a href="Gustav_Fritsch" title="Gustav Fritsch">Gustav Fritsch</a> and <a href="Eduard_Hitzig" title="Eduard Hitzig">Eduard Hitzig</a> of the motor cortex (1871).<sup id="cite_ref-Gross,_1994_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross,_1994-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schiller,_1986_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schiller,_1986-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on selective damage to parts of the brain and the functional effects of the resulting <a href="Lesion" title="Lesion">lesions</a>, <a href="David_Ferrier" title="David Ferrier">David Ferrier</a> proposed that visual function was localized to the <a href="Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a> of the brain in 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-Schiller,_1986_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schiller,_1986-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1881, <a href="Hermann_Munk" title="Hermann Munk">Hermann Munk</a> more accurately located vision in the <a href="Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobe</a>, where the <a href="Primary_visual_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary visual cortex">primary visual cortex</a> is now known to be.<sup id="cite_ref-Schiller,_1986_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schiller,_1986-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 2014, a textbook "Understanding vision: theory, models, and data" <sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> illustrates how to link neurobiological data and visual behavior/psychological data through theoretical principles and computational models.

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Akinetopsia" title="Akinetopsia">Akinetopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Apperceptive_agnosia" title="Apperceptive agnosia">Apperceptive agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Associative_visual_agnosia" title="Associative visual agnosia">Associative visual agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Asthenopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Asthenopia">Asthenopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Astigmatism_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Astigmatism (eye)">Astigmatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_echolocation" title="Human echolocation">Echolocation</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Helmholtz%E2%80%93Kohlrausch_effect" title="Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect">Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect</a> – how <a href="Color_balance" title="Color balance">color balance</a> affects vision</li>

<li><a href="Magnocellular_cell" title="Magnocellular cell">Magnocellular cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory-prediction_framework" title="Memory-prediction framework">Memory-prediction framework</a></li>

<li><a href="Prosopagnosia" title="Prosopagnosia">Prosopagnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Scotopic_sensitivity_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Scotopic sensitivity syndrome">Scotopic sensitivity syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Recovery_from_blindness" title="Recovery from blindness">Recovery from blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_agnosia" title="Visual agnosia">Visual agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_modularity" title="Visual modularity">Visual modularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_processing" title="Visual processing">Visual processing</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Than, Ker. "How the Human Eye Works." <a href="Live_Science" title="Live Science">LiveScience</a>. <a href="TechMedia_Network%2C_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="TechMedia Network, Inc.">TechMedia Network</a>, 10 February 2010. Web. 27 March 2016.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"How the Human Eye Works | Cornea Layers/Role | Light Rays." NKCF. The Gavin Herbert Eye Institute. Web. 27 March 2016.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albertine, Kurt. Barron's Anatomy Flash Cards</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tillotson, Joanne. McCann, Stephanie. Kaplan's Medical Flashcards. April 2, 2013.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Optic Chiasma." Optic Chiasm Function, Anatomy & Definition. Healthline Medical Team, 9 March 2015. Web. 27 March 2016.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jefferey, G., and M. M. Neveu. "Chiasm Formation in Man Is Fundamentally Different from That in the Mouse." <a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature.com</a>. <a href="Nature_Publishing_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature Publishing Group">Nature Publishing Group</a>, 21 March 2007. Web. 27 March 2016.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Card, J. Patrick, and Robert Y. Moore. "Organization of Lateral Geniculate-hypothalamic Connections in the Rat." <a href="Wiley_Online_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiley Online Library">Wiley Online Library</a>. 1 June. 1989. Web. 27 March 2016.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchillerMalpeli1978" class="citation journal cs1">Schiller, P. H.; Malpeli, J. G. (1978-05-01). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/jn.1978.41.3.788">"Functional specificity of lateral geniculate nucleus laminae of the rhesus monkey"</a></span>. <i>Journal of Neurophysiology</i>. <b>41</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">788–</span>797. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjn.1978.41.3.788">10.1152/jn.1978.41.3.788</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3077">0022-3077</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/96227">96227</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchmielauSinger1977" class="citation journal cs1">Schmielau, F.; Singer, W. (1977). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0006899377909143">"The role of visual cortex for binocular interactions in the cat lateral geniculate nucleus"</a></span>. <i>Brain Research</i>. <b>120</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">354–</span>361. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0006-8993%2877%2990914-3">10.1016/0006-8993(77)90914-3</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/832128">832128</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28796357">28796357</a>.</cite></span>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6861-swordfish-heat-their-eyes-for-the-hunt.html">Swordfish heat their eyes</a></li></ul>

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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sci-news.com/biology/science-warnowiid-dinoflagellate-plankton-eyes-02973.html">Single-Celled Planktonic Organisms Have Animal-Like Eyes, Scientists Say</a>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/9/116">"Molecular phylogeny of ocelloid-bearing dinoflagellates (Warnowiaceae) as inferred from SSU and LSU rDNA sequences"</a></li></ul>

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<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLiConnorsKolleEngland2015" class="citation journal cs1">Li, L; Connors, MJ; Kolle, M; England, GT; Speiser, DI; Xiao, X; Aizenberg, J; Ortiz, C (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aad1246">"Multifunctionality of chiton biomineralized armor with an integrated visual system"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>350</b> (6263): <span class="nowrap">952–</span>6. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aad1246">10.1126/science.aad1246</a></span>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F100035">1721.1/100035</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26586760">26586760</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Bok2017-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bok2017_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBokPorterNilsson2017" class="citation journal cs1">Bok, Michael J.; Porter, Megan L.; Nilsson, Dan-Eric (July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2017.05.093">"Phototransduction in fan worm radiolar eyes"</a>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>27</b> (14): <span class="nowrap">R698 –</span> <span class="nowrap">R699</span>. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017CBio...27.R698B">2017CBio...27.R698B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2017.05.093">10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.093</a></span>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1983%2F3793ef99-753c-4c60-8d91-92815395387a">1983/3793ef99-753c-4c60-8d91-92815395387a</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28743013">28743013</a>.</cite> cited by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2017-08-evolution-fan-worm-eyes.html">Evolution of fan worm eyes (August 1, 2017) Phys.org</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMargaret.2008" class="citation book cs1">Margaret., Livingstone (2008). <i>Vision and art: the biology of seeing</i>. Hubel, David H. New York: Abrams. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8109-9554-3</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/192082768">192082768</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRenner2019" class="citation web cs1">Renner, Ben (January 9, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://studyfinds.org/which-species-greatest-vision-study-debunks-old-beleifs/">"Which species, including humans, has the sharpest vision? Study debunks old beliefs"</a>. <i>Study Finds</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKirkKay2004" class="citation cs2">Kirk, E. Christopher; Kay, Richard F. (2004), Ross, Callum F.; Kay, Richard F. (eds.), <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-8873-7_20">"The Evolution of High Visual Acuity in the Anthropoidea"</a></span>, <i>Anthropoid Origins: New Visions</i>, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. <span class="nowrap">539–</span>602, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-8873-7_20">10.1007/978-1-4419-8873-7_20</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4419-8873-7</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-02</span></span></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGibeault2018" class="citation web cs1">Gibeault, Stephanie (March 22, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/do-dogs-have-self-awareness/">"Do Dogs Have Self-Awareness?"</a>. <i>American Kennel Club</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Gross,_1994-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gross,_1994_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gross,_1994_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGross_CG1994" class="citation journal cs1">Gross CG (1994). "How inferior temporal cortex became a visual area". <i>Cereb. Cortex</i>. <b>4</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">455–</span>69. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcercor%2F4.5.455">10.1093/cercor/4.5.455</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7833649">7833649</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Schiller,_1986-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schiller,_1986_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schiller,_1986_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schiller,_1986_68-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchiller_PH1986" class="citation journal cs1">Schiller PH (1986). "The central visual system". <i>Vision Res</i>. <b>26</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">1351–</span>86. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0042-6989%2886%2990162-8">10.1016/0042-6989(86)90162-8</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0042-6989">0042-6989</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3303663">3303663</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5247746">5247746</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFDavisonPatelCunhaSchwiegerling2011" class="citation journal cs1">Davison JA, Patel AS, Cunha JP, Schwiegerling J, Muftuoglu O (July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3124647">"Recent studies provide an updated clinical perspective on blue light-filtering IOLs"</a>. <i>Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol</i>. <b>249</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">957–</span>68. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00417-011-1697-6">10.1007/s00417-011-1697-6</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3124647">3124647</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21584764">21584764</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHatoriPanda2010" class="citation journal cs1">Hatori M, Panda S (October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2952704">"The emerging roles of melanopsin in behavioral adaptation to light"</a>. <i>Trends Mol Med</i>. <b>16</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">435–</span>46. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.molmed.2010.07.005">10.1016/j.molmed.2010.07.005</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2952704">2952704</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20810319">20810319</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Heiting, G., (2011). Your infant's vision Development. Retrieved February 27, 2012 from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.allaboutvision.com/parents/infants.htm">http://www.allaboutvision.com/parents/infants.htm</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHubel,_David_H.1995" class="citation book cs1">Hubel, David H. (1995). <i>Eye, brain, and vision</i>. New York: <a href="Scientific_American_Library" title="Scientific American Library">Scientific American Library</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7167-6009-2</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32806252">32806252</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKolbWhishaw2012" class="citation book cs1">Kolb B, Whishaw I (2012). <i>Introduction to Brain and Behaviour Fourth Edition</i>. New York: Worth Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4292-4228-8</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/918592547">918592547</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMarr,_DavidUllman,_ShimonPoggio,_Tomaso2010" class="citation book cs1">Marr, David; Ullman, Shimon; Poggio, Tomaso (2010). <i>Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information</i>. Cambridge, Mass: <a href="The_MIT_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The MIT Press">The MIT Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-51462-0</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/472791457">472791457</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRodiek1988" class="citation journal cs1">Rodiek, R.W. (1988). "The Primate Retina". <i>Comparative Primate Biology</i>. Neurosciences. <b>4</b>. New York: A.R. Liss.</cite>. (H.D. Steklis and J. Erwin, editors.) pp. 203–278.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchmolesky1995" class="citation journal cs1">Schmolesky, Matthew (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11524/">"The Primary Visual Cortex"</a>. <i>NIH National Library of Medicine</i>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21413385">21413385</a>.</cite></li>

<li>The Aging Eye; See into Your future. (2009). Retrieved February 27, 2012 from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111117045917/http://www.realage.com/check-your-health/eye-health/aging-eye">https://web.archive.org/web/20111117045917/http://www.realage.com/check-your-health/eye-health/aging-eye</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTovée2008" class="citation book cs1">Tovée, Martin J. (2008). <i>An introduction to the visual system</i>. Cambridge, UK: <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-88319-1</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185026571">185026571</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVesalius1543" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Vesalius, Andreas</a> (1543). <i>De Humani Corporis Fabrica</i> [<i>On the Workings of the Human Body</i>].</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWieselHubel1963" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Wiesel, Torsten</a>; <a href="David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">Hubel, David H.</a> (1963). "The effects of visual deprivation on the morphology and physiology of cell's lateral geniculate body". <i><a href="Journal_of_Neurophysiology" title="Journal of Neurophysiology">Journal of Neurophysiology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">978–</span>993. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjn.1963.26.6.978">10.1152/jn.1963.26.6.978</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14084170">14084170</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16117515">16117515</a>.</cite>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/">"Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System"</a> – John Moran Eye Center at University of Utah</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.visionscience.com/">VisionScience.com</a> – An online resource for researchers in vision science.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journalofvision.org/">Journal of Vision</a> – An online, open access journal of vision science.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/articles/IPE/">i-Perception</a> – An online, open access journal of perception science.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news115919015.html">Hagfish research has found the "missing link" in the evolution of the eye. See: <i>Nature Reviews Neuroscience. </i></a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFValentin_Dragoi" class="citation book cs1">Valentin Dragoi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171101011143/http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter14.html">"Chapter 14: Visual Processing: Eye and Retina"</a>. <i>Neuroscience Online, the Open-Access Neuroscience Electronic Textbook</i>. The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter14.html">the original</a> on 1 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Human_intelligence_topics324" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a> <a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> <a href="Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li>

<li><a href="Intellectual_giftedness" title="Intellectual giftedness">Intellectual</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic intelligence">Linguistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_intelligence_(psychology)" title="Spatial intelligence (psychology)">Spatial</a> (<a href="Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">visuospatial</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ability" title="Ability">Abilities</a>, traits,<br>and constructs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)"><i>g</i> factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Intellect" title="Intellect">Intellect</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">Intelligence quotient</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li>

<li><a href="Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a> (<a href="Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory" title="Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory">Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple-intelligences theory</a></li>

<li><a href="PASS_theory_of_intelligence" title="PASS theory of intelligence">PASS theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Three-stratum_theory" title="Three-stratum theory">Three-stratum theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence" title="Triarchic theory of intelligence">Triarchic theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Evolution of human intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">Heritability of IQ</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Environment_and_intelligence" title="Environment and intelligence">Intelligence and environment</a> / <a href="Fertility_and_intelligence" title="Fertility and intelligence">fertility</a> / <a href="Height_and_intelligence" title="Height and intelligence">height</a> / <a href="Impact_of_health_on_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of health on intelligence">health</a> / <a href="Cognitive_epidemiology" title="Cognitive epidemiology">longevity</a> / <a href="Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">neuroscience</a> / <a href="Intelligence_and_personality" title="Intelligence and personality">personality</a> / <a href="Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">race</a> / <a href="Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">sex</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow plainlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">Outline of human intelligence</a> / <a href="Outline_of_thought" title="Outline of thought">thought</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physiology_of_the_visual_system101" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physiology_of_the_visual_system101" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_body#Physiology" title="Human body">Physiology</a> of the </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</a></li>

<li><a href="Intraocular_pressure" title="Intraocular pressure">Intraocular pressure</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_field" title="Visual field">Visual field</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Color_vision" title="Color vision">Color vision</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a>

<ul><li><a href="Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="K%C3%B6llner's_rule" title="Köllner's rule">Köllner's rule</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Opponent_process" title="Opponent process">Opponent process</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Pentachromacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentachromacy">Pentachromacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">Tetrachromacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Trichromacy" title="Trichromacy">Trichromacy</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Optical_illusions_(list)89" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Optical_illusions_(list)89" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Optical_illusion" title="Optical illusion">Optical illusions</a> (<a href="List_of_optical_illusions" title="List of optical illusions">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Illusions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Afterimage" title="Afterimage">Afterimage</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambigram" title="Ambigram">Ambigram</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambiguous_image" title="Ambiguous image">Ambiguous image</a></li>

<li><a href="Autostereogram" title="Autostereogram">Autostereogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Barberpole_illusion" title="Barberpole illusion">Barberpole</a></li>

<li><a href="Bezold_effect" title="Bezold effect">Bezold</a></li>

<li><a href="Checker_shadow_illusion" title="Checker shadow illusion">Checker shadow</a></li>

<li><a href="Chubb_illusion" title="Chubb illusion">Chubb</a></li>

<li><a href="Cornsweet_illusion" title="Cornsweet illusion">Cornsweet</a></li>

<li><a href="Delboeuf_illusion" title="Delboeuf illusion">Delboeuf</a></li>

<li><a href="Ebbinghaus_illusion" title="Ebbinghaus illusion">Ebbinghaus</a></li>

<li><a href="Ehrenstein_illusion" title="Ehrenstein illusion">Ehrenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Flash_lag_illusion" title="Flash lag illusion">Flash lag</a></li>

<li><a href="Fraser_spiral_illusion" title="Fraser spiral illusion">Fraser spiral</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravity_hill" title="Gravity hill">Gravity hill</a></li>

<li><a href="Hering_illusion" title="Hering illusion">Hering</a></li>

<li><a href="Impossible_trident" title="Impossible trident">Impossible trident</a></li>

<li><a href="Irradiation_illusion" title="Irradiation illusion">Irradiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Jastrow_illusion" title="Jastrow illusion">Jastrow</a></li>

<li><a href="Lilac_chaser" title="Lilac chaser">Lilac chaser</a></li>

<li><a href="Mach_bands" title="Mach bands">Mach bands</a></li>

<li><a href="McCollough_effect" title="McCollough effect">McCollough</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion" title="Müller-Lyer illusion">Müller-Lyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Necker_cube" title="Necker cube">Necker cube</a></li>

<li><a href="Oppel-Kundt_illusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppel-Kundt illusion">Oppel-Kundt</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbison_illusion" title="Orbison illusion">Orbison</a></li>

<li><a href="Penrose_stairs" title="Penrose stairs">Penrose stairs</a></li>

<li><a href="Penrose_triangle" title="Penrose triangle">Penrose triangle</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripheral_drift_illusion" title="Peripheral drift illusion">Peripheral drift</a></li>

<li><a href="Poggendorff_illusion" title="Poggendorff illusion">Poggendorff</a></li>

<li><a href="Ponzo_illusion" title="Ponzo illusion">Ponzo</a></li>

<li><a href="Rubin_vase" title="Rubin vase">Rubin vase</a></li>

<li><a href="Sander_illusion" title="Sander illusion">Sander</a></li>

<li><a href="Schroeder_stairs" title="Schroeder stairs">Schroeder stairs</a></li>

<li><a href="Shepard_tables" title="Shepard tables">Shepard tables</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinning_dancer" title="Spinning dancer">Spinning dancer</a></li>

<li><a href="Ternus_illusion" title="Ternus illusion">Ternus</a></li>

<li><a href="Vertical%E2%80%93horizontal_illusion" title="Vertical–horizontal illusion">Vertical–horizontal</a></li>

<li><a href="White's_illusion" title="White's illusion">White's</a></li>

<li><a href="Wundt_illusion" title="Wundt illusion">Wundt</a></li>

<li><a href="Z%C3%B6llner_illusion" title="Zöllner illusion">Zöllner</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><i><a href="Trompe-l'%C5%93il" title="Trompe-l'œil">Trompe-l'œil</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Spectropia" title="Spectropia">Spectropia</a></i> (1864 book)</li>

<li><i><a href="Ascending_and_Descending" title="Ascending and Descending">Ascending and Descending</a></i> (1960 drawing)</li>

<li><i><a href="Waterfall_(M._C._Escher)" title="Waterfall (M. C. Escher)">Waterfall</a></i> (1961 drawing)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_dress" title="The dress">The dress</a></i> (2015 photograph)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accidental_viewpoint" title="Accidental viewpoint">Accidental viewpoint</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_illusion" title="Auditory illusion">Auditory illusions</a></li>

<li><a href="Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusions</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_illusion" title="Tactile illusion">Tactile illusions</a></li>

<li><a href="Time_perception" title="Time perception">Temporal illusion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_globe_of_the_human_eye216" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Anatomy_of_the_globe_of_the_human_eye216" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="Globe_(human_eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Globe (human eye)">globe</a> of the <a href="Human_eye" title="Human eye">human eye</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Fibrous_tunic_of_eyeball" title="Fibrous tunic of eyeball">Fibrous tunic</a> <br>(outer)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sclera" title="Sclera">Sclera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Episcleral_layer" title="Episcleral layer">Episcleral layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Schlemm's_canal" title="Schlemm's canal">Schlemm's canal</a></li>

<li><a href="Trabecular_meshwork" title="Trabecular meshwork">Trabecular meshwork</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cornea" title="Cornea">Cornea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Corneal_limbus" title="Corneal limbus">Limbus</a></li>

<li><i>layers</i>

<ul><li><a href="Corneal_epithelium" title="Corneal epithelium">Epithelium</a></li>

<li><a href="Bowman's_layer" title="Bowman's layer">Bowman's</a></li>

<li><a href="Stroma_of_cornea" title="Stroma of cornea">Stroma</a></li>

<li><a href="Dua's_layer" title="Dua's layer">Dua's layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Descemet's_membrane" title="Descemet's membrane">Descemet's</a></li>

<li><a href="Corneal_endothelium" title="Corneal endothelium">Endothelium</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Uvea" title="Uvea">Uvea / vascular <br>tunic</a> (middle)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Choroid" title="Choroid">Choroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Capillary_lamina_of_choroid" title="Capillary lamina of choroid">Capillary lamina of choroid</a></li>

<li><a href="Bruch's_membrane" title="Bruch's membrane">Bruch's membrane</a></li>

<li><a href="Sattler's_layer" title="Sattler's layer">Sattler's layer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ciliary_body" title="Ciliary body">Ciliary body</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ciliary_processes" title="Ciliary processes">Ciliary processes</a></li>

<li><a href="Ciliary_muscle" title="Ciliary muscle">Ciliary muscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Pars_plicata" title="Pars plicata">Pars plicata</a></li>

<li><a href="Pars_plana" title="Pars plana">Pars plana</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">Iris</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Stroma_of_iris" title="Stroma of iris">Stroma</a></li>

<li><a href="Pupil" title="Pupil">Pupil</a></li>

<li><a href="Iris_dilator_muscle" title="Iris dilator muscle">Iris dilator muscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Iris_sphincter_muscle" title="Iris sphincter muscle">Iris sphincter muscle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Retina" title="Retina">Retina</a> (inner)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Layers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Inner_limiting_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner limiting membrane">Inner limiting membrane</a></li>

<li><a href="Nerve_fiber_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve fiber layer">Nerve fiber layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Ganglion_cell_layer" title="Ganglion cell layer">Ganglion cell layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Inner_plexiform_layer" title="Inner plexiform layer">Inner plexiform layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Inner_nuclear_layer" title="Inner nuclear layer">Inner nuclear layer</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Outer_plexiform_layer" title="Outer plexiform layer">Outer plexiform layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Outer_nuclear_layer" title="Outer nuclear layer">Outer nuclear layer</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="External_limiting_membrane" title="External limiting membrane">External limiting membrane</a></li>

<li><a href="Layer_of_rods_and_cones" title="Layer of rods and cones">Layer of rods and cones</a></li>

<li><a href="Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">Retinal pigment epithelium</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cells</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cells</a> (<a href="Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">Cone cell</a>, <a href="Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">Rod cell</a>) → (<a href="Retina_horizontal_cell" title="Retina horizontal cell">Horizontal cell</a>) → <a href="Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">Bipolar cell</a> → (<a href="Amacrine_cell" title="Amacrine cell">Amacrine cell</a>) → <a href="Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">Retina ganglion cell</a> (<a href="Midget_cell" title="Midget cell">Midget cell</a>, <a href="Parasol_cell" title="Parasol cell">Parasol cell</a>, <a href="Bistratified_cell" title="Bistratified cell">Bistratified cell</a>, <a href="Giant_retinal_ganglion_cells" title="Giant retinal ganglion cells">Giant retina ganglion cells</a>, <a href="Intrinsically_photosensitive_retinal_ganglion_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells">Photosensitive ganglion cell</a>) → <i>Diencephalon</i>: <a href="Parvocellular_cell" title="Parvocellular cell">P cell</a>, <a href="Magnocellular_cell" title="Magnocellular cell">M cell</a>, <a href="Koniocellular_cell" title="Koniocellular cell">K cell</a>, <a href="Muller_glia" class="mw-redirect" title="Muller glia">Muller glia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Macula_of_retina" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula of retina">Macula</a>

<ul><li><a href="Perifovea" title="Perifovea">Perifoveal area</a></li>

<li><a href="Parafovea" title="Parafovea">Parafoveal area</a></li>

<li><a href="Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">Fovea</a>

<ul><li><a href="Foveal_avascular_zone" title="Foveal avascular zone">Foveal avascular zone</a></li>

<li><a href="Foveola" title="Foveola">Foveola</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">Optic disc</a>

<ul><li><a href="Optic_cup_(anatomical)" title="Optic cup (anatomical)">Optic cup</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ora_serrata" title="Ora serrata">Ora serrata</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomical regions <br>of the eye</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Anterior_segment_of_eyeball" title="Anterior segment of eyeball">Anterior segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accessory_visual_structures" title="Accessory visual structures">Adnexa</a> (<a href="Eyebrow" title="Eyebrow">Eyebrow</a>, <a href="Eyelid" title="Eyelid">Eyelid</a>, <a href="Conjunctiva" title="Conjunctiva">Conjunctiva</a>, <a href="Lacrimal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Lacrimal system">Lacrimal system</a>, <a href="Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">Orbit</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Fibrous_tunic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibrous tunic">Fibrous tunic</a></li>

<li><a href="Anterior_chamber_of_eyeball" title="Anterior chamber of eyeball">Anterior chamber</a></li>

<li><a href="Aqueous_humour" title="Aqueous humour">Aqueous humour</a></li>

<li><a href="Posterior_chamber_of_eyeball" title="Posterior chamber of eyeball">Posterior chamber</a></li>

<li><a href="Ciliary_body" title="Ciliary body">Ciliary body</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Capsule_of_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Capsule of lens">Capsule of lens</a></li>

<li><a href="Zonule_of_Zinn" title="Zonule of Zinn">Zonule of Zinn</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Posterior_segment_of_eyeball" title="Posterior segment of eyeball">Posterior segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vitreous_chamber" title="Vitreous chamber">Vitreous chamber</a>

<ul><li><a href="Vitreous_body" title="Vitreous body">Vitreous body</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Retina" title="Retina">Retina</a></li>

<li><a href="Choroid" title="Choroid">Choroid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Corneal_keratocyte" title="Corneal keratocyte">Keratocytes</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocular_immune_system" title="Ocular immune system">Ocular immune system</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_coherence_tomography#Ophthalmology" title="Optical coherence tomography">Optical coherence tomography</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_care_professional" title="Eye care professional">Eye care professional</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Eye disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">Refractive error</a></li>

<li><a href="Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</a></li>

<li><i>Physiological Optics</i></li>

<li><a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sensation_and_perception287" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sensation_and_perception287" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a> and <a href="Perception" title="Perception">perception</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cognitive_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive process">Processes <br>and <br>concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Stimulus</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Transduction_(physiology)" title="Transduction (physiology)">Transduction (physiology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_processing" title="Sensory processing">Sensory processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Active_sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Active sensory system">Active sensory system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Multimodal_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Multimodal integration">Multimodal integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_perception" title="Motion perception">Motion perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human" title="Human">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Exteroception" class="mw-redirect" title="Exteroception">External</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory organ">Sensory organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">Inner ear</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">Auditory system (sense of hearing)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">Vestibular system (sense of balance)</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">Olfactory system (sense of smell)</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustatory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustatory system">Gustatory system (sense of taste)</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Somatosensory system (sense of touch)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory <a href="Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial</a> and <a href="Spinal_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal nerves">spinal nerves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic (II)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">Vestibulocochlear (VIII)</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">Olfactory (I)</a></li>

<li><a href="Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">Facial (VII)</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">Glossopharyngeal (IX)</a></li>

<li><a href="Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">Trigeminal (V)</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">Cerebral cortices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibular_cortex" title="Vestibular cortex">Vestibular cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory cortex">Olfactory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">Gustatory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatosensory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory cortex">Somatosensory cortex</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perceptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception (vision)</a>

<ul><li><a href="Color" title="Color">Color</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory perception">Auditory perception (hearing)</a></li>

<li><a href="Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">Equilibrioception (balance)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">Olfaction (smell)</a></li>

<li><a href="Taste" title="Taste">Gustation (taste or flavor)</a></li>

<li><a href="Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mechanoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreception">mechanoreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Nociception" title="Nociception">nociception (pain)</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermoception" title="Thermoception">thermoception</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Interoception" title="Interoception">Internal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Proprioception" title="Proprioception">Proprioception</a></li>

<li><a href="Hunger_(physiology)" title="Hunger (physiology)">Hunger</a></li>

<li><a href="Thirst" title="Thirst">Thirst</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">Suffocation</a></li>

<li><a href="Nausea" title="Nausea">Nausea</a></li>

<li><a href="Visceral_pain" title="Visceral pain">Visceral pain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nonhuman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonhuman">Nonhuman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Electroreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">Electroreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnetoreception" title="Magnetoreception">Magnetoreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">Echolocation</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_sensing_in_vampire_bats" title="Infrared sensing in vampire bats">Infrared sensing in vampire bats</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li>

<li><a href="Surface_wave_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface wave detection">Surface wave detection</a></li>

<li><a href="Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frog hearing</a></li>

<li><a href="Vision_in_toads" title="Vision in toads">Toad vision</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Plant_perception_(physiology)" title="Plant perception (physiology)">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">Photomorphogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">Gravitropism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Machine_perception" title="Machine perception">Artificial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Robotic_sensing" title="Robotic sensing">Robotic sensing</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine hearing">Machine hearing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <br><a href="Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">Mechanoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">Baroreceptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechanotransduction" title="Mechanotransduction">Mechanotransduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamellar_corpuscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamellar corpuscle">Lamellar corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Tactile corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li>

<li><a href="Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Bulbous corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Campaniform_sensilla" title="Campaniform sensilla">Campaniform sensilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Slit_sensilla" title="Slit sensilla">Slit sensilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Stretch_receptor" title="Stretch receptor">Stretch receptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Photoreceptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li>

<li><a href="IpRGC" class="mw-redirect" title="IpRGC">ipRGC</a></li>

<li><a href="Photopigment" title="Photopigment">Photopigment</a></li>

<li><a href="Aureochromes" title="Aureochromes">Aureochrome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor">Chemoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_receptor" title="Olfactory receptor">Olfactory receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Osmoreceptor" title="Osmoreceptor">Osmoreceptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Thermoreceptor" title="Thermoreceptor">Thermoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cilium#Sensing_the_extracellular_environment" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li>

<li><a href="TRP_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="TRP channels">TRP channels</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nociceptin_receptor#Pain_circuitry" title="Nociceptin receptor">Nociceptin receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Juxtacapillary_receptors" title="Juxtacapillary receptors">Juxtacapillary receptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li>

<li><a href="Alice_in_Wonderland_syndrome" title="Alice in Wonderland syndrome">Alice in Wonderland syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Amaurosis" title="Amaurosis">Amaurosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a> and <a href="Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Oscillopsia" title="Oscillopsia">Oscillopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a></li>

<li><a href="Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Photopsia" title="Photopsia">Photopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cerebral_polyopia" title="Cerebral polyopia">Polyopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li>

<li><a href="Stereoblindness" title="Stereoblindness">Stereoblindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_snow" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual snow">Visual snow</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amblyaudia" title="Amblyaudia">Amblyaudia</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_agnosia" title="Auditory agnosia">Auditory agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_hallucination" title="Auditory hallucination">Auditory hallucination</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_verbal_agnosia" title="Auditory verbal agnosia">Auditory verbal agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cortical_deafness" title="Cortical deafness">Cortical deafness</a></li>

<li><a href="Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a></li>

<li><a href="Microwave_auditory_effect" title="Microwave auditory effect">Microwave auditory effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Music-specific_disorders" title="Music-specific disorders">Music-specific disorders</a></li>

<li><a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_hearing_loss" title="Spatial hearing loss">Spatial hearing loss</a></li>

<li><a href="Tinnitus" title="Tinnitus">Tinnitus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Balance_disorder" title="Balance disorder">Vestibular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vertigo" title="Vertigo">Vertigo</a></li>

<li><a href="Labyrinthine_fistula" title="Labyrinthine fistula">Labyrinthine fistula</a></li>

<li><a href="Labyrinthitis" title="Labyrinthitis">Labyrinthitis</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%A9ni%C3%A8re's_disease" title="Ménière's disease">Ménière's disease</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">Olfactory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anosmia" title="Anosmia">Anosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Dysosmia" title="Dysosmia">Dysosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperosmia" title="Hyperosmia">Hyperosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyposmia" title="Hyposmia">Hyposmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_reference_syndrome" title="Olfactory reference syndrome">Olfactory reference syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Parosmia" title="Parosmia">Parosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantosmia" title="Phantosmia">Phantosmia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Taste_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste disorder">Gustatory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ageusia" title="Ageusia">Ageusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypergeusia" title="Hypergeusia">Hypergeusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypogeusia" title="Hypogeusia">Hypogeusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Parageusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parageusia">Parageusia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Somatosensory_disorder" title="Somatosensory disorder">Tactile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astereognosis" title="Astereognosis">Astereognosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Charcot%E2%80%93Marie%E2%80%93Tooth_disease" title="Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease">CMT disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Formication" title="Formication">Formication</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperesthesia" title="Hyperesthesia">Hyperesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypoesthesia" title="Hypoesthesia">Hypoesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">Paresthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_hallucination" title="Tactile hallucination">Tactile hallucination</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nociception (pain)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hyperalgesia" title="Hyperalgesia">Hyperalgesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypoalgesia" title="Hypoalgesia">Hypoalgesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_dissociation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain dissociation">Pain dissociation</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantom_pain" title="Phantom pain">Phantom pain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proprioception</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Asomatognosia" title="Asomatognosia">Asomatognosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantom_limb" title="Phantom limb">Phantom limb syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatoparaphrenia" title="Somatoparaphrenia">Somatoparaphrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Supernumerary_phantom_limb" title="Supernumerary phantom limb">Supernumerary phantom limb</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multimodal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Agnosia" title="Agnosia">Agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Allochiria" title="Allochiria">Allochiria</a></li>

<li><a href="Derealization" title="Derealization">Derealization</a></li>

<li><a href="Hallucination" title="Hallucination">Hallucination</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Synesthesia" title="Synesthesia">Synesthesia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biases and errors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusion</a> · <a href="Pareidolia" title="Pareidolia">Pareidolia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Phenomena_of_the_visual_system91" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Phenomena_of_the_visual_system91" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Phenomena of the </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Entoptic_phenomenon" title="Entoptic phenomenon">Entoptic phenomena</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Blind_spot_(vision)" title="Blind spot (vision)">Blind spot</a></li>

<li><a href="Phosphene" title="Phosphene">Phosphene</a></li>

<li><a href="Floater" title="Floater">Floater</a></li>

<li><a href="Afterimage" title="Afterimage">Afterimage</a></li>

<li><a href="Haidinger's_brush" title="Haidinger's brush">Haidinger's brush</a></li>

<li><a href="Prisoner's_cinema" title="Prisoner's cinema">Prisoner's cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Blue_field_entoptic_phenomenon" title="Blue field entoptic phenomenon">Blue field entoptic phenomenon</a></li>

<li><a href="Purkinje_images" title="Purkinje images">Purkinje images</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Form_constant" title="Form constant">Form constant</a></li>

<li><a href="Scintillating_scotoma" title="Scintillating scotoma">Scintillating scotoma</a></li>

<li><a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_snow" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual snow">Visual snow</a></li>

<li><a href="Afterimage" title="Afterimage">Afterimage on empty shape</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmic_ray_visual_phenomena" title="Cosmic ray visual phenomena">Cosmic ray visual phenomena</a></li>

<li><a href="Closed-eye_hallucination" title="Closed-eye hallucination">Closed-eye hallucination</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-22" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Visual_system&oldid=1291698304">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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